Efectos de regímenes de riego sobre el rendimiento y el uso del agua en Berenjena (Solanum melongena L.), en condiciones de campo
Effects of Irrigation Regimes on the Yield and Water Use of Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) under field conditions
Palabras clave:
Eficiencia del uso del agua, rendimiento, riego por goteo, calidad del fruto.Resumen
El presente trabajo se realizó en el sector San Vicente, Municipio Maturín Estado Monagas, Venezuela, entre los meses de junio-septiembre del 2015, con el objetivo de determinar el efecto de cuatro láminas de riego sobre el rendimiento, producción, la calidad de los frutos y eficiencia en el uso del agua en el cultivar Long purple de berenjena (Solanum melongena L). Se utilizó un diseño experimental de bloques al azar con tres repeticiones, con arreglo de parcelas divididas, donde la parcela principal fueron las diferentes láminas de riego. La parcela principal tuvo dimensiones de 10 m. de largo por 3 m. de ancho, en la misma se instalaron 4 líneas regantes separadas a 1,0 m. Se aplicaron cuatro criterios de riego consistentes en reponer el equivalente al 60%,80%,100% y 120% de la evapotranspiración del cultivo (ETc). Los parámetros medidos fueron los componentes productivos y rendimiento planta (ton/ha). Un tanque evaporímetro tipo “A” se utilizó para estimar la evapotranspiración de la berenjena. El tratamiento 120 % ETc permitió el máximo rendimiento y calidad (en términos de frutos/planta, longitud, diámetro y peso de la fruta), y la mayor EUA. El máximo rendimiento obtenido fue de 96,92 ton/ha. Todas las funciones de producción del rendimiento y de los parámetros de calidad del fruto obedecen a una ecuación matemática del tipo lineal con un alto valor de coeficiente de determinación R2 por encima del 90%. El factor de respuesta del rendimiento del cultivo de la berenjena (2,08); mayor de 1,00 indica que la berenjena es muy susceptible al déficit de agua.
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Allen, R. G., Pereira, L. S., Raes, D. and Smith, M. (1998). Crop Evapotranspiration: Guidelines for Computing Crop Requirements. Irrig. Drain. Paper No. 56. FAO, Rome, Italy.
Amiri, E., Abdzad Gohari, A. y Esmailian Y. (2012). Effect of irrigation and nitrogen on yield, yield components and water use efficiency of eggplant. African Journal of Biotechnology Vol. 11(13), pp. 3070-3079.
Anwar, M.R., Liu, D.L., Macadam, I., Kelly, G., (2013). Adapting agriculture to climate change: a review. Theor. Appl. Climatol. 113, 225–245.
Asghar Ghaemi, A. y Rafie Rafiee M. (2016). Evapotranspiration and Yield of Eggplant under Salinity and Water Deficit: A Comparison between Greenhouse and Outdoor Cultivation. Modern Applied Science; Vol. 10, No. 11.pp.8-16.
Aujla, M. S., Thind, H. S., Buttar, G. S. (2007). Fruit yield and water use efficiency of eggplant (Solanum Melongema L.) as influenced by different quantities of nitrogen and water applied through drip and furrow irrigation. Scientia Horticulturae 112: 142-148.
Ayas Serhat (2017). The Effects of Irrigation Regimes on the Yield and Water Use of Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.). Toprak Su Dergisi, 2017, 6 (2): (49-58).
Badr, M. A., El-Tohamy, W. A., Abou-Hussein S. D. and Gruda N. S. (2020). Deficit Irrigation and Arbuscular Mycorrhiza as a Water-Saving Strategy for Eggplant Production. Horticulturae 2020, 6, 45: (1-17).
Bloch, D., Hoffmann, C. M., Marlander, B. (2006): Impact of water supply on photosynthesis, water use and carbon isotope discrimination of sugar beet genotypes. Eur. J. Agron. 24: 218-225.
Bozkurt Çolak, Y. (2019). Effects of Irrigation Frequency and Level on Yield and Stomatal Resistance of Eggplant (Solanum Melongena L.) Grown in Open Field Irrigated with Surface and Subsurface Drip Methods. Applied Ecology and Environmental Research 17(6):15585-15604.
Bozkurt Çolak, Y., Yazar, A., Gönen, E., y Çağlar Eroğlu E. (2018). Yield and quality response of surface and subsurface drip-irrigated eggplant and comparison of net returns. Agricultural Water Management 206 (2018) 165–175.
Chaves, M.M., Maroco, J.P., Pereira, J.S. (2003). Understanding plant responses to drought from genes to whole plant. Funct. Plant Biol. 30, 23–264.
Confederación Nacional de Asociaciones de Productores Agropecuarios (FEDEAGRO). (2009). Producción agrícola. Disponible en: http://www.fedeagro.org/produccion/Rubros.asp.Fecha de acceso: 22 de octubre de 2019.
Demirel, K., Genc, L., Bahar, E., Inalpulat, M., Smith, S., Kizil, U. (2014). Yield estimate using spectral indices in eggplant and bell pepper grown under deficit irrigation. Fresen. Environ. Bull. 23 (5), 1232–1237.
Diaz-Perez, J.C., Eaton, T.E., (2015). Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) plant growth and fruit yield as affected by drip irrigation rate. Hortscience 50 (11), 1709–1714.
Doorenbos, J.; Kassam, A.H. (1979). Yield response to water. FAO Irrigation and drainage. Paper N. º 33.
Dutta D and Tafardar P K (2008). Crop-Water Productivity of Eggplant Solanum melongena L.) as Influenced by Irrigation and Mulch in Semi-Arid Region of West Bengal, India. Department of Agronomy, Department of Soil and Water Conservation, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya (BCKV), Mohanpur-741252, Nadia, West Bengal, India.
FAO. (2019). Food and agriculture data. Available online at: http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#home, Accessed date: 10 February 2019.
Fernández García, I., Lecina, S., Ruiz-Sánchez, M. C., Vera, J., Conejero, W., Conesa, M. R., Domínguez, A., Pardo, J. J., Léllis, B. C. and Montesinos, P. (2020). Trends and Challenges in Irrigation Scheduling in the Semi-Arid Area of Spain. Water, 12 (3), p. 785.
Fowler, C., Moore, G., Hawtin, G.C. (2003). The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture: A Primer for the Future Harvest Centre’s of the CGIAR. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.
Gil, J. A.; N. Montaño, R. Plaza. (2012). Efecto del riego y la cobertura del suelo sobre la productividad de dos cultivares de ají dulce. Revista Biagro.24 (2).143-148.
Gil, J. A.; N. Montaño, J.A. Valderrama. (2014). Efecto de cuatro láminas de riego y dos edades de trasplante sobre el rendimiento y producción de dos cultivares de melón (Cucumis melo L.). Revista UDO-Agricola.14 (1).
Howell, T. A.; R. H. Cuenca and K. H. Solomon.(1990). Crop yield response. In: G. J. Hoffman, R.A. Howell, and K. H. Solomon. (Eds). Management of Farm Irrigation System. ASAE Monograph, St. Joseph, Michigan, United States of America. p. 93-122.
Kara C, Gündüz M, Sipahi N (1996) Köy Hizmetleri Genel Müdürlüğü. Şanlıurfa Araştırma Enstitüsü Müdürlüğü Yayınları. Genel Yayın No:108, Rapor Serisi No:79.
Karam F, Saliba R, Skaf S, Breidy J, Rouphael Y, Balendock J (2009). Yield and Water Use of Eggplants (Solanum melongena L.) Under Full and Deficit Irrigation Regimes. Agricultural Water Management 98:1307–1316.
Karam, F., Sabiha, R., Skaf, S., Breidy, J., Rouphael, Y., Balendonck, J. (2011): Yield and water use of eggplants (Solanum Melongena L.) under full and deficit irrigation regimes. Agricultural Water Management 98: 1307-1316.
Kemble, J. M., Sikora, E. J., Simonne, E. H., Zehnder, G. W., Patterson, M. G. (1998): Guide to Commercial Eggplant Production. – Agronomy and Soils, all at Auburn Univ. ANR-1098.
Kırnak H, Ismail T, Cengiz K, David H (2002). Effects of deficit irrigation on growth, yield and yield quality of eggplant under semi-arid conditions. Aus. Jour. of Agri. Res. 53(12): 1367–1373.
Kuşçu, H., Çetin, B., Turhan, A. (2009): Yield and economic return of drip‐irrigated vegetable production in Turkey. New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science 37: 51-59.
Lovelli, S., Perniola, M., Ferrara, A., Di Tommaso, T. (2007): Yield response factor to water (Ky) and water use efficiency of Carthamus tinctorius L. and Solanum melongena L. Agric. Water Manage. 92: 73-80.
Mohamed, I Y., Moustafa, A.M, Osman, A.O, y Mohmed Abdalhi, M.A. (2020). Effect of Irrigation Systems and Watering Amount on Yield of Eggplant (Solanum melongena) Under Arid Conditions. Agricultural and Biological Sciences Journal Vol. 6, No. 3, 2020, pp. 143-147.
Mohawesh, O. (2016): Utilizing deficit irrigation to enhance growth performance and water-use efficiency of eggplant in arid environments. Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology 18(1): 265-276.
Montaño, N; Simosa; J. Perdomo, A. (2009). Respuesta de tres cultivares de berenjena (Solanum melogena L.) a diferentes combinaciones de Fertilizante orgánico y fertilizante químico, Universidad de Oriente. Escuela de Ingeniería Agronómica. Departamento de Agronomía, Revista Científica UDO Agrícola, 9 (4): 807-815.
Montaño Mata, N.J; Gil Marín, J.A y Yeniledys Palmares. (2018). Rendimiento de pepino (Cucumis sativus L.) en función del tipo de bandeja y la edad de trasplante de las plántulas. Anales Científicos, 79 (2): 377 - 385.
Opoku Darko, R., Yuan, S., Kumi, F. y Quaye F. (2019). Effect of Deficit Irrigation on Yield and Quality of Eggplant. International Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB). Vol-4, Issue-5, Sep-Oct-. pp. 1325-1333.
Passioura, J. B., Angus, J. F. (2010): Improving productivity of crops in water-limited environments. – In: Sparks, D. L. (ed.) Advances in Agronomy 106: 37-75.
Plazas M.; Trong Nguyen H.; González-Orenga S.; Fita A.; Vicente O.; Prohens J y Boscaiu M. (2019). Comparative analysis of the responses to water stress in eggplant (Solanum melongena) cultivars. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry 143 (2019) 72–82.
Pirboneh, H., Ghasemi, M., Gohari, A.A., Bahari, B., Bazkiyaei, Z.B. (2012). Effect of irrigation and straw mulch on yield components of eggplant (Solanum MelongenaL.). Int. Res. J. Appl. Basic Sci. 3 (1), 46–51.
Ranjan, A., Mishra, D. H. and Singh, I. (2018). Performance evaluation of drip irrigation under high density planting of papaya. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry2018; 7 (3): 2262-2270.
Sánchez C., A. Arrieta A., S. Flórez D, T. Mercado, J. Martínez A. y A Martínez R. (2004). Requerimiento hídrico de la berenjena Solanum melongena L. bajo riego por goteo en el Valle del Sinú. Agronomía Colombiana, 2004. 22 (2): 170-176.
Sarker, B. C., Hara, M., Uemura, M. (2005): Proline synthesis, physiological responses, and biomass yield of eggplants during and after repetitive soil moisture stress. Sci. Hortic. 103: 387-402.
Sezen, S. M., Yazar, A., Daşgan, Y., Yücel, S., Akyıldız, A., Tekin, S., Akhoundnejad, Y. (2014): Evaluation of crop water stress index (CWSI) for red pepper with drip and furrow irrigation under varying irrigation regimes. Agric. Water Manage. 143: 59-70.
Smittle, D.A., Dickens, W.L., Stansell, J.R., (1994). Irrigation regimes affect yield and water use by bell pepper. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 119, 936–939.
Solomon, K. H. (1985). Tropical crop water production functions. Winter Meeting. ASCE, Chicago, Illinois, United State of America. 85:17-20.
Stewart J I, Misra R D, Pruitt W O, Hagan R M (1975). Irrigating corn and sorghum with a deficient water supply. Trans. ASAE, 18:270–280.
Taylor, R. and Zilberman, D. (2017). Diffusion of drip irrigation: the case of California. Applied economic perspectives and policy, 39 (1), pp. 16-40.
Yang, M. D., Leghari, S. J., Guan, X. K., Ma, S. C., Ding, C. M., Mei, F. J., Wei, L. and Wang, T. C. (2020). Deficit Subsurface Drip Irrigation Improves Water Use Efficiency and Stabilizes Yield by Enhancing Subsoil Water Extraction in Winter Wheat. Frontiers in Plant Science, 11.
Amiri, E., Abdzad Gohari, A. y Esmailian Y. (2012). Effect of irrigation and nitrogen on yield, yield components and water use efficiency of eggplant. African Journal of Biotechnology Vol. 11(13), pp. 3070-3079.
Anwar, M.R., Liu, D.L., Macadam, I., Kelly, G., (2013). Adapting agriculture to climate change: a review. Theor. Appl. Climatol. 113, 225–245.
Asghar Ghaemi, A. y Rafie Rafiee M. (2016). Evapotranspiration and Yield of Eggplant under Salinity and Water Deficit: A Comparison between Greenhouse and Outdoor Cultivation. Modern Applied Science; Vol. 10, No. 11.pp.8-16.
Aujla, M. S., Thind, H. S., Buttar, G. S. (2007). Fruit yield and water use efficiency of eggplant (Solanum Melongema L.) as influenced by different quantities of nitrogen and water applied through drip and furrow irrigation. Scientia Horticulturae 112: 142-148.
Ayas Serhat (2017). The Effects of Irrigation Regimes on the Yield and Water Use of Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.). Toprak Su Dergisi, 2017, 6 (2): (49-58).
Badr, M. A., El-Tohamy, W. A., Abou-Hussein S. D. and Gruda N. S. (2020). Deficit Irrigation and Arbuscular Mycorrhiza as a Water-Saving Strategy for Eggplant Production. Horticulturae 2020, 6, 45: (1-17).
Bloch, D., Hoffmann, C. M., Marlander, B. (2006): Impact of water supply on photosynthesis, water use and carbon isotope discrimination of sugar beet genotypes. Eur. J. Agron. 24: 218-225.
Bozkurt Çolak, Y. (2019). Effects of Irrigation Frequency and Level on Yield and Stomatal Resistance of Eggplant (Solanum Melongena L.) Grown in Open Field Irrigated with Surface and Subsurface Drip Methods. Applied Ecology and Environmental Research 17(6):15585-15604.
Bozkurt Çolak, Y., Yazar, A., Gönen, E., y Çağlar Eroğlu E. (2018). Yield and quality response of surface and subsurface drip-irrigated eggplant and comparison of net returns. Agricultural Water Management 206 (2018) 165–175.
Chaves, M.M., Maroco, J.P., Pereira, J.S. (2003). Understanding plant responses to drought from genes to whole plant. Funct. Plant Biol. 30, 23–264.
Confederación Nacional de Asociaciones de Productores Agropecuarios (FEDEAGRO). (2009). Producción agrícola. Disponible en: http://www.fedeagro.org/produccion/Rubros.asp.Fecha de acceso: 22 de octubre de 2019.
Demirel, K., Genc, L., Bahar, E., Inalpulat, M., Smith, S., Kizil, U. (2014). Yield estimate using spectral indices in eggplant and bell pepper grown under deficit irrigation. Fresen. Environ. Bull. 23 (5), 1232–1237.
Diaz-Perez, J.C., Eaton, T.E., (2015). Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) plant growth and fruit yield as affected by drip irrigation rate. Hortscience 50 (11), 1709–1714.
Doorenbos, J.; Kassam, A.H. (1979). Yield response to water. FAO Irrigation and drainage. Paper N. º 33.
Dutta D and Tafardar P K (2008). Crop-Water Productivity of Eggplant Solanum melongena L.) as Influenced by Irrigation and Mulch in Semi-Arid Region of West Bengal, India. Department of Agronomy, Department of Soil and Water Conservation, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya (BCKV), Mohanpur-741252, Nadia, West Bengal, India.
FAO. (2019). Food and agriculture data. Available online at: http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#home, Accessed date: 10 February 2019.
Fernández García, I., Lecina, S., Ruiz-Sánchez, M. C., Vera, J., Conejero, W., Conesa, M. R., Domínguez, A., Pardo, J. J., Léllis, B. C. and Montesinos, P. (2020). Trends and Challenges in Irrigation Scheduling in the Semi-Arid Area of Spain. Water, 12 (3), p. 785.
Fowler, C., Moore, G., Hawtin, G.C. (2003). The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture: A Primer for the Future Harvest Centre’s of the CGIAR. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy.
Gil, J. A.; N. Montaño, R. Plaza. (2012). Efecto del riego y la cobertura del suelo sobre la productividad de dos cultivares de ají dulce. Revista Biagro.24 (2).143-148.
Gil, J. A.; N. Montaño, J.A. Valderrama. (2014). Efecto de cuatro láminas de riego y dos edades de trasplante sobre el rendimiento y producción de dos cultivares de melón (Cucumis melo L.). Revista UDO-Agricola.14 (1).
Howell, T. A.; R. H. Cuenca and K. H. Solomon.(1990). Crop yield response. In: G. J. Hoffman, R.A. Howell, and K. H. Solomon. (Eds). Management of Farm Irrigation System. ASAE Monograph, St. Joseph, Michigan, United States of America. p. 93-122.
Kara C, Gündüz M, Sipahi N (1996) Köy Hizmetleri Genel Müdürlüğü. Şanlıurfa Araştırma Enstitüsü Müdürlüğü Yayınları. Genel Yayın No:108, Rapor Serisi No:79.
Karam F, Saliba R, Skaf S, Breidy J, Rouphael Y, Balendock J (2009). Yield and Water Use of Eggplants (Solanum melongena L.) Under Full and Deficit Irrigation Regimes. Agricultural Water Management 98:1307–1316.
Karam, F., Sabiha, R., Skaf, S., Breidy, J., Rouphael, Y., Balendonck, J. (2011): Yield and water use of eggplants (Solanum Melongena L.) under full and deficit irrigation regimes. Agricultural Water Management 98: 1307-1316.
Kemble, J. M., Sikora, E. J., Simonne, E. H., Zehnder, G. W., Patterson, M. G. (1998): Guide to Commercial Eggplant Production. – Agronomy and Soils, all at Auburn Univ. ANR-1098.
Kırnak H, Ismail T, Cengiz K, David H (2002). Effects of deficit irrigation on growth, yield and yield quality of eggplant under semi-arid conditions. Aus. Jour. of Agri. Res. 53(12): 1367–1373.
Kuşçu, H., Çetin, B., Turhan, A. (2009): Yield and economic return of drip‐irrigated vegetable production in Turkey. New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science 37: 51-59.
Lovelli, S., Perniola, M., Ferrara, A., Di Tommaso, T. (2007): Yield response factor to water (Ky) and water use efficiency of Carthamus tinctorius L. and Solanum melongena L. Agric. Water Manage. 92: 73-80.
Mohamed, I Y., Moustafa, A.M, Osman, A.O, y Mohmed Abdalhi, M.A. (2020). Effect of Irrigation Systems and Watering Amount on Yield of Eggplant (Solanum melongena) Under Arid Conditions. Agricultural and Biological Sciences Journal Vol. 6, No. 3, 2020, pp. 143-147.
Mohawesh, O. (2016): Utilizing deficit irrigation to enhance growth performance and water-use efficiency of eggplant in arid environments. Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology 18(1): 265-276.
Montaño, N; Simosa; J. Perdomo, A. (2009). Respuesta de tres cultivares de berenjena (Solanum melogena L.) a diferentes combinaciones de Fertilizante orgánico y fertilizante químico, Universidad de Oriente. Escuela de Ingeniería Agronómica. Departamento de Agronomía, Revista Científica UDO Agrícola, 9 (4): 807-815.
Montaño Mata, N.J; Gil Marín, J.A y Yeniledys Palmares. (2018). Rendimiento de pepino (Cucumis sativus L.) en función del tipo de bandeja y la edad de trasplante de las plántulas. Anales Científicos, 79 (2): 377 - 385.
Opoku Darko, R., Yuan, S., Kumi, F. y Quaye F. (2019). Effect of Deficit Irrigation on Yield and Quality of Eggplant. International Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology (IJEAB). Vol-4, Issue-5, Sep-Oct-. pp. 1325-1333.
Passioura, J. B., Angus, J. F. (2010): Improving productivity of crops in water-limited environments. – In: Sparks, D. L. (ed.) Advances in Agronomy 106: 37-75.
Plazas M.; Trong Nguyen H.; González-Orenga S.; Fita A.; Vicente O.; Prohens J y Boscaiu M. (2019). Comparative analysis of the responses to water stress in eggplant (Solanum melongena) cultivars. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry 143 (2019) 72–82.
Pirboneh, H., Ghasemi, M., Gohari, A.A., Bahari, B., Bazkiyaei, Z.B. (2012). Effect of irrigation and straw mulch on yield components of eggplant (Solanum MelongenaL.). Int. Res. J. Appl. Basic Sci. 3 (1), 46–51.
Ranjan, A., Mishra, D. H. and Singh, I. (2018). Performance evaluation of drip irrigation under high density planting of papaya. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry2018; 7 (3): 2262-2270.
Sánchez C., A. Arrieta A., S. Flórez D, T. Mercado, J. Martínez A. y A Martínez R. (2004). Requerimiento hídrico de la berenjena Solanum melongena L. bajo riego por goteo en el Valle del Sinú. Agronomía Colombiana, 2004. 22 (2): 170-176.
Sarker, B. C., Hara, M., Uemura, M. (2005): Proline synthesis, physiological responses, and biomass yield of eggplants during and after repetitive soil moisture stress. Sci. Hortic. 103: 387-402.
Sezen, S. M., Yazar, A., Daşgan, Y., Yücel, S., Akyıldız, A., Tekin, S., Akhoundnejad, Y. (2014): Evaluation of crop water stress index (CWSI) for red pepper with drip and furrow irrigation under varying irrigation regimes. Agric. Water Manage. 143: 59-70.
Smittle, D.A., Dickens, W.L., Stansell, J.R., (1994). Irrigation regimes affect yield and water use by bell pepper. J. Am. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 119, 936–939.
Solomon, K. H. (1985). Tropical crop water production functions. Winter Meeting. ASCE, Chicago, Illinois, United State of America. 85:17-20.
Stewart J I, Misra R D, Pruitt W O, Hagan R M (1975). Irrigating corn and sorghum with a deficient water supply. Trans. ASAE, 18:270–280.
Taylor, R. and Zilberman, D. (2017). Diffusion of drip irrigation: the case of California. Applied economic perspectives and policy, 39 (1), pp. 16-40.
Yang, M. D., Leghari, S. J., Guan, X. K., Ma, S. C., Ding, C. M., Mei, F. J., Wei, L. and Wang, T. C. (2020). Deficit Subsurface Drip Irrigation Improves Water Use Efficiency and Stabilizes Yield by Enhancing Subsoil Water Extraction in Winter Wheat. Frontiers in Plant Science, 11.
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22-12-2020
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Gil Marín, J. A., Montaño-Mata, N. J., & Pérez Córcega, J. (2020). Efectos de regímenes de riego sobre el rendimiento y el uso del agua en Berenjena (Solanum melongena L.), en condiciones de campo: Effects of Irrigation Regimes on the Yield and Water Use of Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) under field conditions. Apthapi, 6(3), 2013 –. Recuperado a partir de https://apthapi.umsa.bo/index.php/ATP/article/view/69
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El derecho de autor de la Revista "Apthapi" pertenece al Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias y de Recursos Naturales (IIAREN), de la Facultad de Agronomía, dependiente de la Universidad Mayor de San Andrés (Bolivia). La propiedad de los artículos es de(l) o los autor(es) y de las instituciones que lo patrocinan.
